Rivers

Most of the rivers of Turkey flow into the seas surrounding the country. The Firat (Euphrates) and Dicle (Tigris) join together in Iraq and flow into the Persian Gulf. Turkey's longest rivers, the Kizilirmak, Yesilirmak and Sakarya, flow into the Black Sea. The Susurluk, Biga, and Gonen pour into the Sea of Marmara, the Gediz, Kucuk Menderes, Buyuk Menderes and Meric into the Aegean, and the Seyhan, Ceyhan and Goksu into the Mediterranean.

Lakes

In terms of numbers of lakes, the Eastern Anatolian region is the richest. It contains Turkey's largest, Lake Van (3.713 square kilometres), and the lakes of Ercek, Cildir and Hazar. There are also many lakes in the Taurus mountains area: the Beysehir and Egirdir lakes, and the lakes that contain bitter waters like the Burdur and Acigoller lakes. Around the Sea of Marmara are the lakes of Sapanca, Iznik, Ulubat, Manyas, Terkos, Kucukcekmece and Buyukcekmece. In Central Anatolia is the second largest lake in Turkey: Tuzgolu. This lake is shallow and very salty. The lakes of Aksehir and Eber are also located in this region. As a result of the construction of dams during the past thirty years, several large dam lakes have come into existence. Together with the Atatürk Dam lake which started to collect water in January 1990, the following are good examples: Keban, Karakaya, Altinkaya, Adiguzel, Kilickaya, Karacaoren, Menzelet, Kapulukaya, Hirfanli, Sariyar and Demirkopru.

History before the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923

Turkish States before Ottoman State/Empire

Throughout history the Turks have established numerous states in different geographical areas on the continents of Asia, Europe and Africa. Therefore, they encountered different cultures, they influenced these cultures and were influenced by them.
The Chinese records reported that the first appearance of the Turks in history was in the Köğ¤men Mountains, where the most ancient remains were found. The culture referred to as Tagar, featuring remains found on the Tagar Island at the Yenisei River on the northern foot of the Köğðmen Mountains and dating back to the seventh century B.C., is attributed to the ancient Turks. The Tagar Culture, however, originated from another ancient culture called the Karasuk which flourished on the same shores, which dates back to two thousand B.C.

 Portrait head of Kul Tegin,Göktürk Khan,Museum at Ulaanbaatur, capital of Mongolia.

It is accepted that Turkish political history in Asia starts with the Huns. The Hun State , which first appeared in the third century B.C., became a significant and powerful state during the reign of its founder, Mete Khan, and passed through fundamental changes, economically and socially, due to her relations with China. Having a defined and certain strategy, Mete first of all defeated the Mongolians and then the Yuechis, and thereafter, having taken the western gates and trade routes of China under his control, he gained significant economic power. This systematic expansion policy resulted in the seizure of Eastern Turkestan, the wheat and provisions granary, by the Huns.

A group of Huns who migrated towards the West first settled in a region to the north of the Black Sea extending to the Danube River. First the Huns made raids on Iran and Anatolia via the Caucasia, and then they attacked the territories of the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. They fought with the Franks in 428, and two years later, reached the areas which are presently the Netherlands and Denmark. The Western Huns, who were known as the first Turkish state founded in Europe, became a great state with territories extending from the banks of the Rhine to the Volga River, under the leadership of Attila the Hun. This state played an important role in transmitting Eastern civilization to the West, and organized campaigns to Italy, the Balkans and Gaul in the reign of Attila. The Western Hun State collapsed a short time after Attila passed away (470).
During the collapse of the Hun Empire in Europe, a new wave of tribal migrations started in Central Asia. The north of the Black Sea was confronted with a new wave of Turkish migration. The first tribes to arrive were the Sabirs, Sarogurs and Onogurs. These Ogur tribes, who settled to the north of the Caucasus, raided the Byzantine territories from Macedonia to Thessaly. It is known that the Bulgarian Turks also came to this region along side the Ogur Turks. Byzantine sources refer to the name "Bulgarian" for the first time in 482. In fact, the Avars, with the Bulgarian Turks under their sovereignty, sieged the Byzantine capital at the beginning of the seventh century. The Avars , who left their homeland in Central Asia and who escaped towards the West when the Göktürk State was founded in 552, had an important place in the history of Europe. They first came to Caucasia and the north of the Black Sea, made an agreement with the Byzantines and fought against, and defeated, Turkish tribes such as the Sabirs and Onogurs on behalf of the Byzantines. They expanded to the banks of the Danube River, over the lands of the Ants, a Slavic tribe. From time to time, they made raids throughout the Balkans and even as far as the Peloponnese in Greece. They sieged Istanbul in 626 together with the Bulgarian Turks. The borders of the Avar Empire extended from the Dnieper to the Elbe River and from the North Sea to the Adriatic Sea during the reign of their famous ruler Bayan Khan. The Avar Empire collapsed between 776-803 due to the concurrent attacks of Kurum Khan, the leader of the Bulgarian Turks and Charlemagne (Charles the Great). Present excavations and research in Hungary and Central Europe reveal that the Avars had an exemplary organization within the state and the army and attained a high level of civilization.
During the period of disintegration of the Sabir State in the east of Europe, a new Turkish state called the Khazars came into existence. The Khazars, who were considered to be the continuation of the Western Göktürks, took over their military and civilian organizations. This state, which ruled for over 300 years bears the name of "Turk" in Arabian, Syrian and Byzantine sources. The Khazars acted as an allied force of the Byzantines in the war between Byzantium and Iran. It is observed that the Arabs who occupied Azerbaijan around the beginning of the eighth century, also raided Khazar territories and occupied their capital city Belencer (in Dagestan).
The war between the Khazars and the Caliphate continued for almost 25 years. The Khazar armies once again went to the south of the Caucasus from 762 AD and occupied all of Azerbaijan and Armenia, and Ras Tarhan, the Khazar commander advanced up to Georgia. The Khazars were threatened afterwards by other Turkish tribes, and especially by the Russians. Their state collapsed towards the end of the tenth century due to their long lasting wars against the Pechenegs.
Another Turkish tribe living in Eastern and Southeastern Europe and the Balkans was the Pechenegs. The Pechenegs, an Oghuz tribe, whose initial settlement around Balkhash Lake moved on to the nearby Aral Sea during the fight between the Göktürks and Uigurs. Then they moved further towards the West and fought against the Khazars. They occupied the Cuman plains and expelled the Hungarians ruling the lands between the Don and Dnieper Rivers towards the West. Giving assistance to the Russians in their fights with the Khazars, they played a role in the founding of this state. The Pechenegs, who ruled a territory extending from the Don River to the Danube River in the tenth century, made raids on Byzantine territories from the middle of the eleventh century. However, they were decisively defeated by the joint forces of the Cumans and Byzantines beside the Lower Maritsa River in 1091. Some of the separate Pecheneg groups who could not represent a political existence after this defeat were settled in the territories of the Byzantine Empire. Those who stayed in the Balkans and Hungary settled there and were assimilated. Turkish History in the Islamic Period. After the decline of the Uigur State, the Karahanid State was founded in 840 by the Turkish tribes such as the Karluks, Çigils and Arguls. The reign of the Karahanids is considered to be a turning point in Turkish history, because Islam was accepted as the official religion during the reign of Satuk Buðra Khan, the Karahanid leader. Being the first Muslim Turkish state established in Central Asia, they laid the foundations of an historical development called Turkish-Islamic culture and civilization.
The Karahanids, whose first city of governance was Kashgar and second was Balasagun to the north, was divided between two brothers in 1042: the Eastern Karahanids and the Western Karahanids. The Eastern Karahanid State survived until 1211 and then accepted the sovereignty of the Great Seljuk State. Islamic-Turkish literature was developed during the rule of the Karahanid State which was customarily governed by just, religious, and culture loving Khans and Kashgar and Balasagun became important cultural centers.
At the time of the rule of the Karahanids, there was another Turkish state of which the capital city was Ghazna in Afghanistan. The most powerful period of the Ghaznavid State (936-1187) was the reign of Mahmud of Ghazna who used the title of "Sultan" for the first time. Sultan Mahmud, who organized many campaigns to India, took these places under Turkish rule, Islamized them and laid the foundation for today's State of Pakistan. The rulers succeeding Sultan Mahmud could not maintain this brilliant period. The Ghaznavids had to retreat to India after the Dandanakan War with the Seljuks in 1040 and finally came under the sovereignty of the Seljuks.
Another great Turkish state was the Seljuk State (1040-1157) founded by the Seljuk Bey who was a member of the Kinik tribe of the Oghuz Turks. The borders of the state covered an area from the Marmara Sea to the Balkhash Lake in Central Asia and from the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea to the borders of India and Yemen. Therefore, it was named the Great Seljuk State. At the time of Seljuk rule, there were also two other great and strong Turkish states, namely the Karahanids and Ghaznavids. The Seljuks entered into a struggle of hegemony with these two Turkish states and were successful in establishing Turkish unity. Togrul Bey, the Sultan of the Seljuks, entered Baghdad, the Abbasid Caliphate capital and ended the domination of the Buwayhids, a Persian Shiite dynasty, in 1055. Therefore, the Caliph bestowed on Togrul Bey the title of "Ruler of the World". During the reign of Sultan Alp Arslan, the successor of Togrul Bey, the territories of the country expanded significantly.
The most significant events of this period were the clashes with the Byzantine Empire. Sultan Alp Arslan inflicted a crushing defeat on the Byzantine army under the leadership of Romanus Diogenes at Manzikert (Malazgirt) in 1071. This victory firmly established Turkish rule in Anatolia.
During the reign of Sultan Malik Shah, one of the most powerful rulers of the Seljuks, the Seljuk State experienced her most successful period in the fields of military, science, politics and literature. Madrasahs (theological schools) were opened all over the country. The most important of these was the Nizamiye Madrasah constructed by the Vizier Nizam al-Mülk which was the foundation for the architecture of the Western universities.

 Madrasah with Slim Minarets, one of the unique examples of the Seljuk Period, Konya

After Sultan Malik Shah died, the country was divided into small states. The Syrian Seljuks (1092-1117), Iraq and Khorasan Seljuks (1092-1194), Kirman Seljuks (1092-1187) and the Anatolian Seljuks (1092-1194) were among the small states. During the disintegration period of the Great Seljuk State many small beylics and atabeylics were also established on the Anatolian territories of the state. These beylics played an important role in making Anatolia Turkish through the Turkish population they brought and also the architectural works they made. These beylics had a significant affect in the strengthening of the Anatolian Seljuk State which was established later in Anatolia.
Moreover, the Khorezm Shah State (1097-1231) was established by Mohammed Khorezm Shah, the son of Anushtegin, the palace servant of Sultan Malik Shah, on the territories of the Great Seljuk State. The Khorezm Shah State made significant progress in science and politics.
The most important state established in the place of the Great Seljuk State is definitely the Anatolian Seljuk State. Suleiman ibn Qutulmish who established himself at Nicaea (Iznik) in 1078 tried to expand Turkish rule in Anatolia and he managed to spread his rule all over Anatolia in a short period of time. During the reign of his son, Kiliç Arslan I, the First Crusade began, Iznik was seized by the Crusaders and given to the Byzantines. Kiliç Arslan I then established himself in the city of Konya and started a war of attrition against the invaders. However, he could not stop the Crusaders who were heading towards Syria. The efforts to unify Anatolia under Turkish rule were also continued during the reign of his successor, Sultan Mesud I. He repelled the Byzantine army headed for Konya and defeated the Crusaders near the Ceyhan River. Sultan Kiliç Arslan II, the successor of Mesud I, made the Byzantine intrigues against the Turks ineffective and inflicted a heavy defeat on the Byzantine army under the leadership of the Emperor Manuel Comnenus I, at Myriokephalon near Denizli (1176). Following this victory, the influence of the Byzantine Empire over Anatolia was completely lost. Thereafter, trade flourished and construction activities accelerated. Caravanserais were built on the roads and shipyards were constructed in Sinop and the Mediterranean, the madrasahs were opened and important developments were made in science. The most brilliant period of Turkish history was experienced during the reign of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I. However, the death of the Sultan by poisoning created chaos in the country. The religio-political rebellion of the Babais was followed by the Mongolian invasion and Anatolia was occupied by the Mongolians after the Kösedag War between the Seljuks and Mongolians in 1243. Along with the weakening of the Mongolian rule towards the end of the thirteenth century, the Turkoman groups who were settled at the frontiers during the Seljuk period, founded many beylics (principalities) of varying sizes in Anatolia. The Karaman, Germiyan, Esref, Hamid, Mentese, Candar, Pervane, Sahib Ata, Karesi, Saruhan, Aydin, Inanç and Osmanogullari were among the Turkoman beylics founded in Anatolia in this period. In this period, which is called the Beylics Period, all of Anatolia came under Turkish rule and a new period of welfare began in the country which had been previously exposed to a great extent to Mongolian destruction. As a matter of fact, the Ottoman state was founded on these solid foundations.
In Egypt, the army commander Izzeddin Aybeg was declared the Sultan, after the death of es-Salih Necmeddin, the last Ayyubid ruler and thus the Turkish Kölemen (Mameluke) State (1250-1382) was founded. The Mameluke State has an important place in Turkish history, because during the reign of Sultan Aybeg, the Mansure Victory was won which made the Seventh Crusade ineffective. During the reign of Seyfeddin Kotuz, the Mongolian-Armenian-Crusaders alliance which tried to invade Egypt suffered a heavy defeat and the Mongolians were not able to enter Syria. During the period of the later Sultans, the Christian hegemony in Syria would end and the territories extending to Kayseri in Anatolia would be taken under the rule of the Mameluke Sultanate. In addition, trade between the east and the west developed during this period. The Mameluke Sultans were bestowed the title of "Hadimü'l-Harameyn" (the Servant of Mecca and Medina), due to their services to Islam, and acquired a justified fame in the Islamic World. The Mameluke State was wiped out by the Ottoman State.
One of the most important states of the fourteenth century was the Tamerlane State (1370-1507). It was founded by Tamerlane, who was a provincial governor in one of the Çagatay khanates. The borders of the state extended from the Volga River to the Ganges River in India, and from the Tanri Mountains to Izmir and Damascus. Tamerlane, who had a violent character, caused great damage during his military expeditions. The state became an empire in a period of 35 years. It disintegrated just as rapidly as it was established after the death of Tamerlane. Muhammed, his grandson, founded a state in Samarkand. Pir Muhammed and Iskender, his other grandsons, founded a state in Iran. Miranshah, his son, founded states in Baghdad and Azerbaijan. Shahruh, his younger son, founded a state in Khorasan. During the period of Shahruh, who tried to establish unity by enlarging the borders of his state, a brilliant cultural life was started. His son Ulug Bey ascended the throne as a well-known astronomer. Only Hüseyin Baykara from the Tamerlane dynasty could manage to hold out in Khorasan. Herat, the capital city, became one of the most significant cultural centers of Turkish history. Ali ½ir Nevai, the Turkish poet and statesman, was educated here. Herat was seized by the Uzbeks after the reign of Baykara and the Tamerlane dynasty disappeared.
When the Tamerlane State was established, the Turkoman group of the Karakoyunlu, which settled between Irbil and Nakhichevan, founded a state, the center of which was Tabriz. This state formed by the Yiva, Yazir, Döger and Avsar tribes of the Oghuz Turks was called the Karakoyunlu State (1380-1469). The Karakoyunlu State fought with Tamerlane. Kara Yusuf, the ruler of the Karakoyunlu State, had to take refuge in the Ottoman state during the reign of Yildirim Beyazid as a result of pressure by Tamerlane. This strained relations between the Ottomans and the Tamerlanes and was considered to be a reason for the Ankara War of 1402. Kara Yusuf, who managed to recover after this war, reestablished his state after 1406 and captured Mardin, Erzincan, Baghdad, Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Kazvin, and Sultaniye. After his death, the country was dragged into chaos. Although Cihan-shah managed to reunify the state, he was defeated by Akkoyunlu Uzun Hasan at Mardin and the country entered under the hegemony of the Akkoyunlu State.
The Akkoyunlu State (1350-1502) was founded by Turkoman tribes who settled around Diyarbakir. It emerged as a union under the leadership of Tur Ali Bey. The Akkoyunlu State fought against the Trabzon Greek Empire to the north in this period. The real founder of the state is known to be Kara Yülük Osman Bey. The most powerful period of the Akkoyunlu State was the reign of Uzun Hasan. During his reign the borders of the state extended from the Caspian Sea to Syria, and from Azerbaijan to Baghdad. For this reason, Uzun Hasan saw himself as the person who could establish the union of the Turks and identified himself with Tamerlane and made plans to abolish the Ottoman State and the Egyptian Sultanate. He established political relations with the European states, namely the Christian world, to obtain firearms to realize his goal. However, his defeat in the Otlukbeli Battle in 1473 by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II was a heavy blow for Uzun Hasan. This defeat helped the collapse of the Akkoyunlu State and paved the way for the founding of the Safavid State (1501-1736) by Shah Ismail who managed to get the Turkoman groups of Ustaçli, Rumlu, Musullu, Tekeli, Bayburtlu, Karadagli, Dulkadirli, Karamanli, Varsak and Avsar on his side. At the time when Shah Ismail established the Turkish political union in Iran, a great part of the Indian subcontinent was also united under Turkish rule. Meanwhile, the Ottoman State took almost all of Anatolia under its rule and also started to expand its Eastern and Western borders.
Shah Ismail, who founded a political union in Iran, expanded his territories. In his conquests the religious fervor of the Shiite sect played a role. However, his activities in Anatolia, and also his attempts to annex Anatolia, provoked the reaction of the Ottoman Sultan Selim I (Selim the Grim). Shah Ismail's army was seriously defeated at the Battle of Çaldiran in 1514. Still, all his successors, especially Shah Tahmasp continued fighting against the Ottomans. However, they were defeated in almost all the battles they fought. When Nadir Shah of the Avsar tribe established his own dynasty following the reign of Abbas III, the Safavid period came to an end.
The reign of the Safavids had an important place in history. Shah Ismail and the other members of the dynasty were known for their love of art. In this period, literature, architecture and handicrafts such as tilemaking, pottery and textiles developed and great advances were made in bookbinding, decoration and calligraphy.
Zahiruddin Babür, a member of the Tamerlane dynasty, entered India and founded the Turkish-Indian (Babür) Empire (1526-1858). He became famous for his work written in Turkish called Vekayi Babürname. After his death, in the reigns of his sons, Humayun and Ekber, this state developed even more and a large portion of the Indian subcontinent was united under a single rule. The period of Hürrem, who had assumed the name of Shah-cihan (Shah of the World) upon ascending the throne, was the most brilliant period of the empire in politics and art. The Taj Mahal at Agra, which is considered to be one of the most beautiful architectural monuments in the world, was constructed during his reign. Architects were also sent from the Ottoman State for the construction of the monument. These good relations with the Ottoman State also continued during the reign of his son, Alemgir I. Hegave asylum to the Ottoman governors of Basra who were fighting against the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. The internal turmoil which began after the death of Alemgir I continued until the reign of Shah Bahadir II. The British who suppressed a revolt in the country in 1857 annexed India to Britain and Queen Victoria was officially declared the Empress of India.

The Ottoman State/Empire (1299-1923)

Following the weakening of the Anatolian Seljuk State, several beylics from various Turkish tribes emerged in Anatolia. One of these beylics was the Ottoman Beylic, a member of the Kayi tribe of Oghuz Turks from the Sögüt-Yenisehir-Bilecik region. The Ottoman Beylic succeeded in establishing the union of the beylics in Anatolia in a short period of time. The Ottomans who fought against the neighboring Byzantine State, first crossed into Rumelia and then captured Constantinople in 1453 during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II (1451-1481), putting an end to the Byzantine Empire and thus, to the Middle Ages. In the reign of Sultan Mehmed II, who assumed the title of "the Conqueror", the Ottoman State entered into an era of rapid development which would last until the end of the sixteenth century.
The Ottomans fought with the Serbs, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Venetians, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Britain, the Vatican, Spain and also France and Russia from time to time in the West; and in the East and the South, the Akkoyunlus, Tamerlanes, Mamelukes, Safavids and the Karamanids, which were all Turkish states. During the reign of Sultan Selim I (1512-1520), Egypt was conquered and the "Caliphate" passed from the Abbasids to the Ottoman dynasty. During the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566), the Ottoman State had a developed state organization, a powerful army and finances. The borders of the Empire extended from the Crimea in the North to Yemen and Sudan in the South, and from Iran and the Caspian Sea in the East to Vienna in the Northwest and Spain in the Southwest.

Sultan Mehmet the Conqoueror         Sultan Selim I (Selim the Grim)            Süleyman the Magnificent

The National War of Independence (1919-1923)

The National War of Independence was an effort to create a new state from the ruins of an Empire which had completed its life. These efforts lasted for four years because the imperialist states wanted to bring to life a new order suitable for their own political aims and interests from the ruins of this empire.
The Turkish resistance movements were transformed into a complete war of independence when Mustafa Kemal landed at Samsun as the Inspector of the 9th Army on 19 May 1919. It achieved success against the armies supported by the large countries of the world and under very difficult conditions.
Mustafa Kemal, who joined the Ottoman Army as a captain on 11 January 1905, proved his military talents on almost every front during the First World War. When the Ottoman Empire was considered to be defeated following the First World War, he was appointed Commander of the Lightning Armies. However, when this army was abolished, he returned to Istanbul. Mustafa Kemal, who understood that a political result could not be reached against the occupying powers which were oppressing the Istanbul Government, decided to go to Anatolia and carry on his struggle from there. He immediately started to organize national resistance and got in touch with all the army units and resistance organizations in Anatolia. He made the first call for a national movement with the circular he issued in Amasya on 22 June 1919. He organized this national struggle with the Erzurum and Sivas Congresses, giving it an official status. According to the National Pact program which took its final shape at the Sivas Congress, the territories where the Turks lived could not be partitioned in any form and limitations such as capitulations which would prevent the political, legal and financial development of the country would definitely not be accepted.
When the Entente Powers officially occupied Istanbul and disbanded the Parliament on 16 March, Mustafa Kemal declared that the reign and life of the Ottoman Empire, which had lasted for six centuries, was ended.

 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk together with the congress members during the Sivas Congress.

He announced that the Grand National Assembly would gather in Ankara, the headquarters of the national movement, on 23 April 1920 and the authority to represent the nation would only belong to this parliament as of this date. In fact, the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA), which undertook the duties of saving and administrating the country and obtaining complete independence for the country, started activities on 23 April 1920 with extraordinary authority. Mustafa Kemal was elected as the President.
 
The last connections between Ankara and Istanbul ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sevrès on 12 August 1920. The agreement included very oppressive conditions for the Turks. According to the agreement, the Turks could be sovereign on only a small part of Anatolia and their state would be under the financial and military control of the foreign states.
The efforts to set up an Armenian state in Eastern Anatolia, by using the Treaty of Sevrès were made ineffective by the forces of the Army Commander Kazim Karabekir in this region. After the armistice was signed on 18 November 1920, peace was obtained on the Eastern front by the Gümrü Agreement which was signed on 2 December 1920. This was the first international agreement which was signed by the TGNA.
On the Western front, the Greek Army which occupied Izmir on 15 May 1919 and started to spread throughout the Aegean region, was stopped by the First and Second İnönü Battles between January-April 1921. The Greek Army suffered a heavy defeat during the Sakarya Battles between August-September 1921. The Sakarya Battle victory provided significant diplomatic successes and France withdrew from Adana and the surroundings with the Ankara Agreement signed by Turkey and France in October 1921. Thus, another front was eliminated. After that, all the forces and resources of the country were gathered for a great attack to be made on the Western front. In fact, the Greek forces were defeated heavily during the Great Attack and Commander in Chief Battle between August-September 1922. Izmir was liberated on 9 September 1922. This military success would accelerate the founding of the Republic of Turkey. The Mudanya Armistice was signed between the Ankara Government and the Entente States on 11 October 1922 and it was decided to hold a conference in Lausanne one month later to discuss the conditions for a permanent peace treaty. However, when the Entente States also invited the Istanbul Government to send its delegation to this conference along with the Ankara Government, the TGNA declared that the Caliphate was separated from the Sultanate and that the sultanate was abolished. Mehmed IV (Vahideddin), the last Ottoman Sultan, secretly fled aboard a British ship on 17 November 1922.
The Lausanne peace treaty negotiations, at which the Ankara Government participated as the sole representative, started on 21 November 1922. The negotiations, at which Ismet İnönü presided over the Turkish delegation, were suspended in February 1923 due to disagreements especially on the future of capitulations. The negotiations, which restarted in April 1923, resulted in the signing of the Lausanne Treaty on 24 July 1923. The treaty recognized the creation of a Turkish State with virtually the same borders as those of the National Pact of 1920 and guaranteed her complete independence. Thus, it marked the successful culmination of the National War of Independence.

Famous Landmarks

AYASOFYA( St. Sophia) Museum

The Basilica of Hagia Sophia was constructed by Roman Emperor Justinian in 537 AD. This was the largest church in the Christian world for a thousand years.Its immense dome rises nearly 200 feet above the ground and its diameter spans more than 100 feet. The mosaics covering the walls are among the most important works of art that have survived to this day of the Byzantine era.
Large round buildings had been successfully covered by domes before, but Hagia Sophia had a rectangular floor plan, and covering a large rectangular structure by a huge central dome was being tried for the first time in history. The dome collapsed and repaired many times.
The Ottomans converted the basilica to a mosque in the 15 th century after the conquest of Istanbul. Recognizing its historic and universal importance, the Turkish Government turned it into a museum in 1935

SULTANAHMET MOSQUE

Sultanahmet Mosque is the most famous monument in both the Turkish and the Islamic worlds. It was built in the classic Turkish architectural style between 1609-1616 by the architect Mehmet. The building is more familiarly known as the Blue Mosque because of its magnificent interior paneling of more than 20,000 blue and white Iznik tiles.
The inside is a single immense space into which the light pours from 260 windows. The dome 141 feet high, is supported by four enormous circular pillars 16 feet in diameter and are known as elephant feet. As it is located across Hagia Sophia, the mosque was designed to be as large and as magnificent as this Byzantine structure.

TOPKAPI PALACE

Topkapi Palace is certainly the most important historical site to be visited in Istanbul. It is one of the most frequently visited museums of Europe and is the most visited one in Turkey. The Palace served as the administrative center of the Ottoman Empire for nearly 400 years between the 15th and 19th centuries. Its principal parts were finished in 1478, then altered and enlarged by new additions in the reign of each succeeding sultan. The Palace was abandoned in 1855 when Sultan Abdülmecit I, 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, moved to the new Palace of Dolmabahçe. In 1924, it was turned into a museum upon the orders of Atatürk.
Palace is a complex of buildings spread out over one of the seven hills of Istanbul. It consists of courtyards serving different purposes which are separated from each other by monumental gates. Pavilions, each used for different purpose, surround these courtyards. The total area of the Palace is twice the area of Vatican and half of Monaco in size.
Besides being the official residence of the Sultan, the Topkapi Palace served as the headquarters of the government. It also housed the state treasury and the archives. The mint, as well as the highest educational institution were located on the Palace grounds.
On exhibitions are the imperial collections of crystal, silver and Chinese porcelain; imperial handmade costumes worn by the sultans and their families, the famous jewels of the treasury; the richest collection of clocks in the world; the sacred relics of Islam including the swords of Muhammed, his bow and his mantle; priceless collection of miniatures and many other priceless objects. One of the largest diamonds in the world, the Spoonseller Diamond, is displayed in a special showcase in the hall. The rooms are exquisitely decorated and tiled.

DOLMABAHÇE PALACE

Dolmabahçe Palace, built in the mid-19th century by Sultan Abdülmecit 1, stretches for 600 meters along the European shore of the Bosphorus. The palace has survived intact with its original decorations, furniture, silk carpets, curtains and everything else. It is said that 14 tons of gold and 40 tons of silver were used for the decoration of the palace.
The palace contains 285 rooms, 43 salons and six baths. Its walls and ceilings are covered with paintings by the famous artists of that age. Rare handmade art objects from Europe and the Far East decorate every room in the palace. The ballroom is the largest of its kind in the world. A 4.5 ton giant-sized crystal chandelier with 750 bulbs hangs from the 120 feet high dome. The floors are parquet, of exceptional quality and are laid with high-quality silk carpets, hand-woven in the Imperial Factory of Hereke.
Atatürk used to stay in this palace when he visited Istanbul. He died here in 1938. All the clocks in the palace were stopped at 9:05 am, the time of his death, in memory of this great Türk.
The Palace which is a museum today is open on certain days of the week, and it is one of those historic places in Istanbul that must be visited.

KARIYE MUSEUM ( The Chora Church )

The Kariye Museum is, after Hagia Sophia, the most important Byzantine monument in Istanbul. The existing building was built towards the end of the 11th century and dedicated to Christ the Savior.
After the Turkish conquest, the church remained deserted for a time, and was turned into a mosque in 1511 by addition of a minaret. It became a museum in 1948 and its frescoes were cleaned and restored by the American Institute of Byzantine Research.
The walls are decorated with superb 14th century mosaics, illustrating scenes from the life of Christ and the Virgin Mary. These are the finest masterpieces of Christian religious art to be found anywhere in the world. Paintings, rocks and architectural designs seen in the background make the pictures three-dimensional. The scenes are made with special care for them to look daily, lively and ordinary. The scenes are enriched with explicating stories near them.

ELSEWHERE IN TURKEY

TROY

Ancient city of Troy is located 30 km south west of Çanakkale province in the Marmara Region of Turkey. This is one of the most important historical cities of Anatolia. Archeological excavations have revealed nine separate periods of settlement at this site, including ruins of city walls, house foundations, a temple and a theater. The earliest settlement dates from five thousand years ago and the last coincided with the late Roman period. Famous Trojan wars, depicted in Homer’s epic Iliad took place here at about 1200 BC. A symbolic wooden horse at this site commemorates this legendary war.

EPHESUS

The ruins of Ephesus is one of the world’s greatest archaeological sites. It is located 75 km south of Izmir.In Hellenistic times, Ephesus became the most densely populated city in Anatolia with a population of more than 200 000. The city reached the peak of its glory under the Roman rule and became a very important centre of trade and commerce. A majority of the monuments that exist now date to that period. It was also the leading political and intellectual centre, with the second school of philosophy in the Aegean. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
Ephesus also emerged as one of the main centers of early Christianity. St. Paul remained in the city for three years during his third missionary journey (53-57).The Apostle John also came to Ephesus to live and was finally buried here. Ephesus was one of the Seven Churches mentioned in his book of Revelation.Tradition has it that St.John brought Virgin Mary to Ephesus after Christ’s crucifixion and that she lived and died in a small wooden house located about three miles away in the forested mountain above Ephesus at the age of 101. In the year 431 the Third Ecumenical Council was held in the Basilica of the Virgin Mary in Ephesus. In the following century, Emperor Justinian(527-565) built a massive church at the spot where St John was believed to have been buried. It became an important site of pilgrimage throughout the Middle Ages.
The city ruins include the agora, theater, gymnasium, stadium, Church of the Virgin Mary, Temple of Serapis, Temple of Hadrian, Fountain of Trajan, Scholasticia Baths, Temple of Domitian and terrace houses that once belonged to rich Ephesians, as well as the Celsus Library. The Cathedral of St. John is on the Ayasuluk hill above the city.
The Celsus Library (shown in the picture) is the most impressive building of them all. According to inscriptions in Latin and Greek on the wings of the front steps, the Library was erected in AD 110 by the Consul G.J.Aquila for his father, G.J.Celsus Polemaeanus, formerly Roman Consul and governor of the Asian province.The library was completed in AD 135 by his heirs. Its façade was two-tiered; the interior consisted of a single large hall, measuring 10x16 m, comprising the Celsus library itself. The burial chamber under the floor contains the marble sarcophagus of Celsus in an excellent state of preservation.
The reading room destroyed in a fire in the second half of the 3rd century, but the façade did not suffer damage. For a time, the library was left filled with the resulting debris. About AD 400, the area in front of the building was converted into a pool. The façade served a decorative purpose, with its beautiful silhouette mirrored in the water.
The monumental façade as it stands today is the result of restoration work begun in the 1970s, completed and the whole opened to the public in 1978.

APHRODISIAS

The impressive remains of this once-splendid city are situated on a high plateau, within Aydin Province. As its name suggests, Aphrodisias was named after Aphrodite, a goddess of nature, love and fertility and was the site of one of her most famous sanctuaries.
Although the history of Aphrodisias stretches farther back in time, it rose to prominence in the first century BC and enjoyed a long period of prosperity. Besides being a significant religious site, it was also a cultural and intellectul center to which students and scholars flocked from all over the ancient Hellenistic world. With an excellent marble supply, perhaps the finest available anywhere, the city became the center of a school of sculpture that flourished for a period of six hundred years.Many of its marvelous works of art are now housed in the local museum.
The Temple of Aphrodite was the focal point of the city in antiquity, as it still is today with its fourteen standing columns. The stadium, located in the northern end of the city, is probably the best preserved structure of this type in the Mediterranean. It could accommodate as many as 30,000 people. The theater, odeon (concert-hall), Bishop’s Palace, Baths of Hadrian are among other ruins.
East of the temple, one of the most attractive landmarks of Aphrodisias is a decorative gateway (in the picture) datable to the middle of the second century. It consisted of four rows of four columns and its main access was from the east, with a front row of spirally-fluted Corinthian columns facing a main north-south street.Its sixteen columns have been repaired and re-erected and upper portions partly replaced.

PERGAMON

Pergamon (or Pergamum), once a great center of culture, survives as one of Turkey’s finest archeological sites. It is located 100 km north of Izmir.The city experienced its golden age until the end of the 3rd century AD during Hellenistic and Roman times. In the Acropolis, above the modern town, are the remains of the library, a steep and impressive theatre, the temples of Trajan and Dionysos, the monumental Altar of Zeus, the sanctuary of Demeter, a gymnasium and the Agora. The Asclepion, located to the southwest of the lower city, was a medical center dedicated to the god of health, Asclepios. Patients were treated with water and mud baths, with massages and with medicinal herbs. The center also had a small theather, a library, a sacred fountain, temples as well as two meeting rooms and lavatories for women and for men.
The site of Pergamon was first excavated by the German archaeologists between 1878 and 1886. It was during this time that the magnificient reliefs of the Altar of Zeus were discovered and carried to Berlin and now displayed in Berlin Museum.
Ancient authors tell us that the Pergamon library at one time contained 200 000 volumes. Mark Anthony carted them off to Egypt as a gift for Cleopatra, to replace the ones that had been lost when the Alexandrian library was burned during Caesar’s campaign. In the middle of the library’s main reading room is the podium on which there stood at one time the 3.5 meter high statue of Athena that is now in the Berlin Museum.

CAPPADOCCIA- “the land of beautiful horses”

The ancient region of Cappadocia lies in Central Anatolia between the cities of Nevsehir, Kayseri and Nigde. Three million years ago, violent eruptions of the nearby volcanoes covered the surrounding plateau with a deep layer of solidified mud, ash and lava. The winds, rivers and rains have eroded this soft volcanic rock into hundreds of strangely shaped pillars, cones and fairy chimneys, creating a vast outdoor museum of stone sculptures in an incredible variety of shapes, layering, textures and colors.
Since the most ancient of times, men have been carving dwellings in this soft rock; the early Christians made countless cave churches, chapels and monasteries. There are more than 200 churches in Capadocia scattered through the valleys, with their impressive frescoes and art works.
The most amazing speciality of Cappadocia is the underground cities which are still being discovered. The ones in Kaymakli and in Derinkuyu are the most famous ones. These cities with 8-9 floors underground have been completely carved in volcanic tuff and were used by Christians as places to retreat to and live in until danger from their enemies had passed. The narrow tunnels which could be blocked by millstones at times of escape, the ventilation systems, and the hidden rooms of these cities show a perfect planning and construction. But the absence of inscriptions and decorations of any kind makes it difficult for the art historians to determine the dates of construction.
The horses and the stud farms of Cappadocia have been famous throughout history. The word Cappadocia comes from the word “Catpaducia” meaning “the land of beautiful horses”.

MEVLEVI CONVENT AND MUSEUM

Founder of the Mevlevi Order known in the West as the Whirling Dervishes, Muhammed Celaleddin lived in Konya from 1228 until his death in 1273. He was given the name Mevlana (Our High Master) by his followers.
The nearly 6500 m2 land, on which the convent lies, used to be a rose garden belonging to Seljuk Sultan Alaaddin Keykubat. He gave the area to Mevlana’s father, Bahaddin Veled. as a gift. Bahaddin Veled was buried here in accordance with his will. From that day on, this place became a popular visiting spot. The building of the tomb began in 1274, only after the burial of Mevlana beside his father. In 1396, the tomb was covered by a cone shaped dome decorated by exquisite turquiose tiles.
The building has gone through many modifications during different periods in history and it has turned into a collection of buildings, an institution. In 1926, the Mevlana Convent opened as a museum. The artifacts presented to the convent throughout the centuries are on display. The most interesting section of the museum is under the green dome where the sarcophagi of Mevlana and his son, Sultan Veled, stand. The museum contains 65 sarcophagi of the members of Mevlana’s family and his followers. On display are hand-written copiess of the sayings and books about Mevlana and Mevlevi order, musical instruments, metal glass and wooden objects, carpets and kilims. In the former dervish cells, the garments of the order are exhibited.

PAMUKKALE

This sight of spectacular beauty is located in the inner Aegean region. The terraces over 300 feet in height composed of layers of the accumulated limestone sediment have been gradually formed in the course of the ages. For thousands of years a deep underground spring on the hills above has been pouring out streams of hot, mineral-saturated water.As the water has flowed down the mountainside, the water’s rich mineral content has coated them in a smooth layer of white calcareous rock. Since these white slopes resemble castles when observed from the plain, the area is called Pamukkale which means cotton castle in Turkish. Several Roman emperors came to bathe in these thermal pools. The area is still one of the leading hot springs in Turkey.

MT.NEMRUT

Antiochos I, ruler of the Commagene Kingdom in the first century BC, built himself this funeral monument on top of Mount Nemrut in eastern Turkey. It consists of a tumulus and a dozen gigantic statues representing Antiochus I, eagles, lions and ancient gods. Lion and eagle statues were used as the guardians. The tumulus is 50 m high and 150 m. in diameter. Although the inscriptions at the back of the thrones on east and west terraces record that Antiochos I had chosen the hierothesion as his sacred last resting place or a place where his body will sleep for endless eternity, sysmic research did not show any grave chamber or large cavity in the tumulus. The average height of the statues is 26-33 feet. These are made of stone, too heavy and large to be carried to the muesum and remain where they were originally erected. Time has inflicted heavy damage on the sculptures- their bodies sit with their beautifully carved heads at their feet.

SANLI URFA- HALIL RAHMAN MOSQUE

This province in southeast Turkey is known as the “city of Prophets”, because the Prophets Job, Abraham and Suayb, whose names are mentioned in the holy books and who lived before the emergence of the three monotheistic religions- Judaism, Christianity and Islam – resided here. According to Muslim tradition, Prophet Abraham was born in a cave on the northern side of Sanli Urfa castle. Today the cave is a pilgrimage site.
There is a fish lake in the center of Sanli Urfa filled with sacred fish and surrounded by Halil Rahman Mosque. According to legends, Abraham believed in a single god and tried to spread this belief. For his refusal to follow the worship of idols, Abraham was condemned to be burned.The cruel King Nimrod had Abraham launched from a catapult from the city’s citadel to fall into a pile of burning wood. God intervened and turned the fire into water and the wood into fish, which make up water and fish in the pool.

DID YOU KNOW THAT ?

A country of sun and history, Turkey straddles the point where Europe and Asia meet. It is located where the three continents making up the old world, Asia, Africa and Europe, are closest to one another.

Because of its geographical location, the mainland, Anatolia, has witnessed the mass migration of diverse peoples shaping the course of history. Home to countless civilizations, Anatolia has developed a unique blend of cultures—each with its own distinct identity, each linked to its predecessors through history.

As an ancient land and modern nation, Turkey today holds and protects the common past of all people,
Fascinating Facts Illustrating Turkey’s Rich Heritage

• Istanbul is the only city in the world located on two continents - Europe and Asia. During its 25,000-year history, it has been the capital of the Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman Empires.
• Two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World stood in Turkey - the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, Bodrum.
• St. Nicholas, known as Santa Claus today, was born and lived in Demre (Myra) on Turkey's Mediterranean coast. The village contains the famous Church of St. Nicholas, which contains the sarcophagus believed to be his tomb.
• The first man ever to fly was Turkish. Using two wings, Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi flew from the Galata Tower over the Bosphorus to land in Usküdar in the 17th century.
• Many archeologists and biblical scholars believe Noah's Ark landed on Agri Dagi (Mount Ararat) in eastern Turkey.
• The famous Trojan War took place in western Turkey, around the site where a wooden statue of the Trojan Horse rests today.
• Turks introduced coffee to Europe.
• According to Turkish tradition, a stranger at one's doorstep is considered "a guest from God," and should be accommodated accordingly.
• Julius Caesar issued his celebrated proclamation, Veni, Vidi, Vici (“I came, I saw, I conquered”), in Turkey upon defeating the Pontus, a formidable kingdom in the Black Sea region of Turkey.
• Alexander the Great conquered a large territory in what is now Turkey, and also cut the Gordion Knot in the Phrygian capital (Gordium), not far from Turkey's present-day capital (Ankara).
• Aesop - famous all over the world for his fables and parables - was born in Anatolia.
• Homer was born in Izmir on the west coast of Turkey.  He depicted Troy in his epic Iliad.
• Part of Turkey's southwestern shore was a wedding gift from Marc Antony to Cleopatra.
• The number of archaeological excavations going on in Turkey every year is at least 150.
• Writing was first used by people in ancient Anatolia. The first clay tablets - in the ruins of Assyrian Karum (a merchant colony) - date back to 1950 B.C.
• The last home of the Virgin Mary is in Selçuk, Turkey.
• Leonardo da Vinci drew designs for a bridge over the Bosphorus, the strait that flows through Europe and Asia. (Although da Vinci’s bridge was never built, there are now two bridges over the Bosphorus.)
In 1492, Sultan Beyazıd II, after learning about the expulsion of Jews, dispatched the Ottoman Navy to bring them safely to the Ottoman lands.
• Likewise, Jews expelled from Hungary in 1376, from Sicily early in the 15th century, from Bavaria in 1470, from Bohemia in 1542, and from Russia in 1881, 1891, 1897, and 1903 all took refuge in the Ottoman Empire.
• As was the case during the Bolshevik revolution, Turkey served as a safe passage and haven for those fleeing their native countries during World War II.
• Turkey was one of the few countries in the world to welcome Jewish refugees escaping the horrors of Nazism.
• During the Gulf War in 1991, Turkey welcomed nearly half a million Kurds from Northern Iraq. The Kurds were fleeing the danger posed by Saddam Hussein’s regime.
• Turkey provided homes for some 313,000 Bulgarian refugees of Turkish origin when they were expelled from their homelands in Bulgaria in 1989